The History of Western Philosophy - Socrates

Socrates looms large in Philosophy's history, but, as Russell notes, "is a very difficult subject for the historian." Russell outlines some notes that are generally accepted as being true:

- "He was undoubtedly an Athenian citizen of moderate means" and well-known.
- He educated the young and, unlike the Sophists, did so for free
- He was tried, convicted and executed in a trial around 399 B.C. on the charge that "Socrates is an evil-doer and a curious person, searching into things under the earth and above the heaven; and making the worse appear the better cause, and teaching all this to others."

Russell relates how most of our knowledge of Socrates comes from two men. One of these was Xenophon, a military man whose intelligence has been called into question by a variety of historians and seems biased towards Socrates as he never discusses what caused Socrates to be persecuted. Russell therefore states that any of Xenophon's discussions of Socrates's philosophy cannot be trusted, but Xenophon's historical accounts of Socrates seem to be reliable and corroborated. The second person is Plato - one of Socrates's students and a witness to his trial. Russell states that although Plato's intelligence is obvious, his writing can be called into question precisely because Plato is a gifted writer:

"Plato... is an imaginative writer of great genius and charm... His Socrates is a consistent and extraordinarily interesting character, far beyond the power of most men to invent; but I think Plato could have invented him. Whether he did so, of course, is another question."

The most famous account of Socrates is Plato's Apology - the speech that Socrates made in defense of himself at his trial. Plato himself admits that this is not a word-for-word retelling and that literary license was taken. However, Russell notes that Plato was present and that Plato's intention is "broadly speaking, historical."

Socrates was put on trial, Russell believes, mainly due to his antagonism towards the aristocracy, of which Socrates was a member. He was convicted of basically corrupting the young. The prosecutor called for death, and in Athenian law, the defense was allowed to propose a lesser punishment. Russell posits that if Socrates wished to avoid death, he could have easily done so by countering the death penalty with a large, substantial fine that would have been paid for by Socrates's benefactors, including Plato. Instead, Socrates countered with an insignificant fine and thus, the death penalty stood.

Socrates is well-known for using the dialectic method to great affect; that is, the method of question and answer to seek knowledge. Russell notes that although Socrates did not invent this method (Zeno, a student of Parmenides is credited with this and with using it on Socrates), he most certainly refined it. Russell also notes that if the way Socrates's use of the dialectic method in the Apology is in any way truthful, it is not difficult to see why "all the humbugs in Athens would combine against him."

Russell then explains that Socrates was most concerned with ethics as the dialectic method does not answer questions that have to deal with empirical science. When Socrates attempts to do so in regards to Geometry in some of Plato's later dialogues, Russell states that he asks leading questions that any judge would disallow. Russell says that although this slowed later philosophers' scientific progress, Socrates's use of the dialectic method was excellent at uncovering logical errors - a useful trait.

"Perhaps 'philosophy' might be defined as the sum-total of those inquires that can be pursued by Plato's methods. But if this definition is appropriate, that is because of Plato's influence upon subsequent philosophers."